
I recently visited England, surprising many of my friends and family. I’m no fan of the British Empire. In fact, I’ve been an outspoken critic of their policies and have worked in or with numerous organizations for the last three decades pushing for a united Ireland.
Regardless, I still wanted to see London and the surrounding areas with my own eyes. I also wanted to learn more about British ideas around death and dying. After all, they did create hospice, death cafes, and the rise of the modern death-positive movement.
Unfortunately, thanks to colonialism, I didn’t learn much beyond what I already knew. British and American death rituals are closely linked. It’s no secret that everywhere they went, British imperialists sought to replace indigenous cultures with their own. And this continues to limit end-of-life experiences and choices today.
So I explored that issue during my visit.
British Oppression Affects End-of-Life
British imperialism spanned centuries and continents, leaving profound scars on the indigenous cultures it attempted to dominate. These impacts often extended far beyond political control, replacing or suppressing rituals, gender roles, and family structures that conflicted with Western, white, heteronormative cultures.
From the suppression of women-led spiritual practices to the marginalization of gender-fluid identities, the legacies of these policies continue to shape the modern world.
1. Ireland
Ireland’s indigenous Gaelic traditions celebrated women as priestesses and druids, roles tied to nature and fertility. These priestesses watched over births and deaths in their communities, providing support and solace wherever they went.
Celts were truly ahead of their time. Pre-colonial Irish Brehon Law allowed for diverse family structures, provided equal rights for men and women, and included specific laws protecting the environment.
SIDE NOTE: Do you know what the British were truly great at? Killing people from a distance. They saw these indigenous cultures in places like America and Ireland, where women were in positions of power, and freaked out.
They couldn’t have English women seeing such things.
So, British rulers replaced these progressive cultures with strict monogamous and patriarchal systems. Of course, resistance emerged in revolutionary actions to fight against British efforts to suppress Irish autonomy and heritage. In other words, we didn’t just sit around and accept it.
2. Middle East
Pre-colonial Mesopotamian traditions in what today is Jordan, Israel, and Iraq revered priestesses and the women held powerful roles in spiritual and social life. These priestesses guided their communities through major life milestones, including births and deaths, providing comfort and structure for centuries.
British mandates disregarded these indigenous cultures and governance systems, redrawing borders and imposing foreign (read: mostly male) administrative structures.
The arbitrary borders drawn by British colonial powers created states with diverse ethnic and religious groups that often had historical rivalries. This eventually led to the Balfour Declaration (1917), which flat-out ignored Palestinian self-determination. In Iraq, British intervention in the 1920s led to massive cultural upheaval.
That upheaval continues throughout the Middle East today. (To put it mildly.)
3. Australia
For Aboriginal Australians, spiritual practices tied to Dreamtime—the ancestral narrative of creation—were integral to community identity. Women conducted rituals focusing on land, fertility, and storytelling.
British settlers disrupted these practices, enforcing Christian norms and policies like the Stolen Generations (1869–1970s), which forcibly removed children from their families to assimilate them. Similar to America, smallpox, influenza, and measles brought by the British wreaked havoc on indigenous peoples.
Many also died in random killings, punitive expeditions, and organized massacres.
Many Aboriginal groups recognized gender-fluid individuals as integral to spiritual and social life. Colonization imposed rigid binaries, erasing these roles. Modern movements like the Uluru Statement from the Heart advocate for the revival and recognition of Aboriginal traditions.
4. New Zealand
Māori culture in New Zealand revered tohunga (priests or healers), many of whom were women responsible for spiritual practices around childbirth, death, and the environment. Colonization and the Treaty of Waitangi (1840) displaced these roles, prioritizing Christian missions and Western governance.
Similar to what they did in America, British imperialism took home-based birth and death rituals (under the auspices of women) and moved them into hospitals (under the aegis of men.)
Māori cosmology’s inclusion of figures like Hine-nui-te-pō, a female deity of death, reflects their cultural respect for women in spiritual narratives. Resistance to colonial suppression included the New Zealand Wars (1845–1872) and contemporary leaders like Whina Cooper, who championed land and cultural rights.
5. India
In India, British imperialism eroded centuries-old practices central to cultural identity. Women held leadership roles in religious traditions such as goddess worship, celebrating figures like Durga and Kali. However, colonial rule, bolstered by Victorian values, marginalized these roles and prioritized Christianity and patriarchal norms.
The hijras, a community recognized in ancient texts like the Kama Sutra as embodying a third gender, held significant spiritual and social roles, including blessing ceremonies. The British Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 stigmatized hijras as “criminals,” forcing them into the margins of society.
Today, hijras are reclaiming their identity through LGBTQ+ activism and cultural revival. But let us never forget where this strife began – with British imperialism and genocide against the Indian people.
6. African Countries and Communities
In Kenya, and other African countries, women led rituals tied to agriculture and community well-being. British colonization displaced these roles through land seizures and Christianization. Similar to Ireland, polygamy, a respected practice in many African societies, was condemned by colonial rulers, who imposed monogamous marital norms.
Many African cultures also recognized gender diversity, with roles for individuals embodying both masculine and feminine traits. Figures like Wangu wa Makeri, a Kikuyu leader, exemplified women’s authority until colonial policies undermined such roles.
Resistance movements like the Mau Mau Uprising (1952–1960) sought to reclaim indigenous governance and traditions.
7. Canada
In Canada, First Nations women played pivotal roles in rituals like the potlatch, a pre-death ceremony of redistribution, and community bonding. British colonial authorities banned the potlatch in 1885, targeting its spiritual and communal significance.
Two-Spirit individuals, embodying diverse gender identities, held esteemed roles in indigenous societies. Colonial policies, including residential schools, sought to erase these identities and enforce heteronormativity.
Modern revivals, such as Truth and Reconciliation efforts and Two-Spirit activism, are reclaiming these traditions.
8. Caribbean
African spiritual practices like Obeah and Santería blended with indigenous traditions to create powerful rituals led by women in the Caribbean. These were criminalized by British colonial authorities, who viewed them as threats to plantation control.
Nanny of the Maroons, a leader of freed African communities in Jamaica, used spiritual practices to resist British rule. Her legacy underscores the resilience of Afro-Caribbean cultural identities despite centuries of suppression.
9. Southeast Asia
In Burma, women were spiritual leaders until British Christian missionaries undermined them. Similarly, matrilineal systems in communities like the Minangkabau of Sumatra thrived for centuries until colonial rule ultimately marginalized them.
Figures like Saya San, who led anti-colonial revolts, incorporated indigenous rituals and practices, highlighting the resilience of these traditions.
10. Pacific Islands
Don’t let any right-wingers try to tell you that transgender people haven’t been with us since the beginning of time. Many Pacific Island cultures honored third-gender individuals, such as the fa’afafine in Samoa, who played vital roles in community and spiritual life, including funerals and wakes.
British missionaries condemned these roles, enforcing rigid gender binaries.
Women also served as priestesses and mediators with the divine in Polynesian funerals. Leaders like Queen Salote Tupou III of Tonga navigated colonial pressures to preserve cultural identity while engaging with the outside world.
British Crimes Against Indigenous Cultures

The breadth of cultures affected by British imperialism demonstrates its profound destructive impact on indigenous traditions, particularly in erasing or marginalizing women-led rituals, gender fluidity, and non-monogamous practices.
Yet, the resilience of these communities still offers hope.
Through revival movements, storytelling, and activism, these traditions are being reclaimed, ensuring their survival in the face of historical erasure. By examining these stories, we not only confront the legacies of colonialism but also celebrate the enduring strength of human diversity.
Up the revolution. May it continue, always.
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